International Policy and Strategy Comparison for LEO-PNT Among Navigation Satellite System Providers with Focus on the U.S., EU, and China

Sung-Woo Kim*, Byoung-Sun Lee

Low Earth Orbit Positioning, Navigation, and Timing (LEO-PNT) systems have emerged as a promising complement to traditional medium-Earth orbit Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS). This paper provides a comprehensive comparative analysis of international policies and strategies for LEO-PNT development from technological, political, economic, and regulatory perspectives. Major space-faring entities – including the United States, European Union, China, and others – are examined in terms of their approaches to leveraging LEO constellations for enhanced PNT services. The technological drivers for LEO-PNT (stronger signals, improved geometry, and new system architectures) are discussed alongside challenges such as satellite proliferation and spectrum management. National and regional strategies are compared: the U.S.’s focus on resilient PNT through commercial and defense initiatives; Europe’s exploration of next-generation multi-orbit navigation infrastructure; China’s state-driven plans for an integrated multi-orbit PNT by 2035; and efforts by other players. Economic and commercial dimensions, including public-private partnerships and the nascent market for LEO-based navigation services, are analyzed. Regulatory issues – from frequency allocation to orbital debris mitigation – are also addressed. The paper finds that while approaches differ, there is a convergent recognition of LEO-PNT’s value for PNT resilience and performance. International coordination and standards development will be critical to maximize benefits and ensure compatibility. The study concludes with insights into how LEO-PNT development could reshape the global PNT landscape and recommends collaborative strategies to address shared challenges.

Keywords: GNSS, navigation satellite, LEO-PNT, policy, strategy